Prods Oktor Skjærvø’s Introduction to Zoroastrianism is a scholarly text exploring the history and beliefs of Zoroastrianism. The text examines the origins of the religion, tracing its connections to Indo-Iranian and Indo-European roots. Key Zoroastrian concepts such as Asha (Order), Ahura Mazda (the supreme god), and the cosmic struggle between good and evil are discussed in detail. The author analyzes various primary sources, including the Avesta (sacred texts), Achaemenid inscriptions, and later Pahlavi texts, to reconstruct Zoroastrian history and theology. The text also covers Zoroastrian rituals, cosmology, and eschatology, offering a comprehensive overview of the faith.

1. What are the Gâthâs, and what is their significance within Zoroastrianism?

The Gâthâs are a set of five hymns or songs, considered the most sacred texts in Zoroastrianism and attributed to Zoroaster himself. They are named after their opening words and are integral to the Yasna ceremony. The five Gâthâs are: the Ahunawaitî Gâthâ, the Ushtawaitî Gâthâ, the Spentâmanyû Gâthâ, the Vohukhshathrâ Gâthâ, and the Vahishtôishtî Gâthâ. They are essential for understanding Zoroastrian theological concepts, such as the struggle between good and evil, and the importance of righteous thought, word, and deed.

2. Who is Mithra in Zoroastrianism, and what role does he play?

Mithra is a significant deity in Zoroastrianism, associated with contracts, agreements, and truth. He is the guardian of all kinds of agreements, whether social (homes, families) or political (tribes, countries). Mithra is a friend to the truthful and an enemy to those who break agreements. He is portrayed as a watchful overseer, never sleeping, with many eyes and ears, and is associated with the sun. He also precedes the sun at dawn. Warriors invoke him before battles to strike fear into their enemies.

3. What is the concept of “spenta,” and how does it relate to the Zoroastrian worldview?

“Spenta” is a key term in Zoroastrianism, meaning “life-giving” or “holy.” It is an epithet applied to everything that has the potential to grow and produce, emphasizing a worldview that values life, growth, and fertility. The concept is often connected to the idea of cosmic renewal and the opposition to stagnation or lifelessness. The word also highlights the importance of the inherent goodness and potential within the world.

4. What is the role of Haoma within Zoroastrian ritual and belief?

Haoma is a sacred plant and the deity that embodies it within Zoroastrianism. It is praised in the Yasna ceremony and is believed to bestow insight, wisdom, and strength. Haoma is also described as a powerful force that can ward off evil, and it’s praised for providing protection. It is often associated with the idea of life-giving power, and is thought to aid in the spiritual progress of the believer. The preparation and offering of Haoma is a crucial aspect of Zoroastrian ritual.

5. What are the Fravashis, and why are they significant?

The Fravashis are pre-existent souls or spiritual essences of individuals. They are considered powerful entities that existed before human beings and continue to exist after death. The Fravashis are seen as protectors and guardians of the living, and they are invoked for aid and protection. They also play an essential role in the maintenance of the cosmic order. Sacrifices and offerings are made to honor the Fravashis.

6. What are some of the practices and beliefs related to purity and pollution in Zoroastrianism?

Zoroastrianism has specific rules regarding purity and pollution, particularly relating to death. Contact with dead bodies is considered highly polluting and requires purification rituals. Hair and nails are also considered potential sources of pollution if not disposed of properly. The religion emphasizes the maintenance of both physical and spiritual purity to counter the forces of evil and uphold the created order.

7. What is Xwêdôdah, and why is it a complex and debated aspect of Zoroastrianism?

Xwêdôdah (also spelled Khwēdōdah) refers to a type of consanguineous marriage, primarily between close family members. It’s considered a complex and controversial practice, with both strong advocacy and strong condemnations found within Zoroastrian texts. The practice is presented as both a means to combat the evil forces in the world and as a high merit action for those who partake in it, with benefits to both sides of the family. The text describes this practice as having intense and positive effects, to the point of neutralizing the effects of a sorcerer if performed.

8. How do Zoroastrian texts portray the end of the world and the final judgment?

Zoroastrian texts describe an end of the world scenario involving a final battle between good and evil, and a cosmic renewal. A savior figure, Sôshâns, will appear and aid in the final triumph of good. At the time of the final judgement, all will pass through molten metal as a purification ritual. Souls will be judged by Rashnu, and the righteous will be rewarded with paradise, while the wicked will face punishment in hell. Ultimately, Zoroastrianism anticipates the complete restoration of the world to its original state of goodness.

Zoroastrianism: A Study Guide

Quiz

1. Explain the significance of the term “spenta” in Zoroastrianism. Spenta is an epithet for things that are (at least potentially) life-giving, fertile, or capable of growth and prosperity. It is the opposite of Mainyu, which implies dryness and non-growth, highlighting a core duality in Zoroastrian thought.
2. What is the role of Mithra in Zoroastrianism, and how does this compare to the Rigvedic Mitra? Mithra is a guardian of contracts, agreements, and truthfulness, acting as an overseer who never sleeps and surveys vast areas, punishing those who break their word. Both Rigvedic Mitra and Avestan Mithra are associated with the sun, but the Avestan Mithra takes on a stronger role as a warrior god and enforcer of societal order.
3. Describe the concept of the “seven climes” in Zoroastrian cosmology. The earth is divided into seven karshwar or climes, with Khwaniratha at the center. The sevenfold division is mentioned in the Gathas and is considered a significant part of the cosmos.
4. What are the Gâthâs, and what is their importance in Zoroastrian tradition? The Gâthâs are five sections of the Yasna, each named after their opening words, and are considered to be the most ancient and sacred Zoroastrian texts. They are believed to contain the teachings of Zoroaster himself, particularly in the form of hymns and prayers.
5. Explain the function of Haoma in Zoroastrian ritual. Haoma is a plant that is ritually pressed, and its juice is used in Zoroastrian ceremonies. It bestows insight, wisdom, force, and obstruction-smashing strength, and is praised as a life-giving master of knowledge.
6. How does the concept of the daênâ relate to an individual’s actions and fate in Zoroastrian belief? The daênâ represents the totality of a person’s thoughts, words, and actions, acting as a guide and a witness throughout their life, and is used to determine one’s fate. This also connects to ideas of consciousness and inner hearing, through which one experiences the world.
7. Summarize the role and significance of the Fravashis. The Fravashis are the pre-souls of the Orderly, who are invoked for help in maintaining cosmic order. They assist in creation, ensure the flow of waters, and provide guidance in life, connecting to ideas of ancestral power and influence on the living world.
8. Describe the main conflicts or battles described in the Yashts. Many of the Yashts describe battles against the powers of the Lie, which can include those who break contracts, heretics, sorcerers, and even dragons. These battles showcase the conflict between order and chaos, and highlight the role of deities in maintaining balance.
9. What does the Videvdad reveal about the Zoroastrian view of pollution and death? The Videvdad contains detailed rituals and rules for dealing with pollution and death. It outlines the process of cleansing, and discusses the ways that death can defile the living world through the spread of lies and impurity.
10. How did Darius, the Achaemenid king, portray himself and his rule in his inscriptions? Darius presented himself as a righteous king chosen by Ahuramazdâ, highlighting his commitment to justice, order, and the support of the divine. His inscriptions promote the idea that he rules with divine sanction and aims for the prosperity of his kingdom.

Answer Key

1. Spenta is an epithet for things that are (at least potentially) life-giving, fertile, or capable of growth and prosperity. It is the opposite of Mainyu, which implies dryness and non-growth, highlighting a core duality in Zoroastrian thought.
2. Mithra is a guardian of contracts, agreements, and truthfulness, acting as an overseer who never sleeps and surveys vast areas, punishing those who break their word. Both Rigvedic Mitra and Avestan Mithra are associated with the sun, but the Avestan Mithra takes on a stronger role as a warrior god and enforcer of societal order.
3. The earth is divided into seven karshwar or climes, with Khwaniratha at the center. The sevenfold division is mentioned in the Gathas and is considered a significant part of the cosmos.
4. The Gâthâs are five sections of the Yasna, each named after their opening words, and are considered to be the most ancient and sacred Zoroastrian texts. They are believed to contain the teachings of Zoroaster himself, particularly in the form of hymns and prayers.
5. Haoma is a plant that is ritually pressed, and its juice is used in Zoroastrian ceremonies. It bestows insight, wisdom, force, and obstruction-smashing strength, and is praised as a life-giving master of knowledge.
6. The daênâ represents the totality of a person’s thoughts, words, and actions, acting as a guide and a witness throughout their life, and is used to determine one’s fate. This also connects to ideas of consciousness and inner hearing, through which one experiences the world.
7. The Fravashis are the pre-souls of the Orderly, who are invoked for help in maintaining cosmic order. They assist in creation, ensure the flow of waters, and provide guidance in life, connecting to ideas of ancestral power and influence on the living world.
8. Many of the Yashts describe battles against the powers of the Lie, which can include those who break contracts, heretics, sorcerers, and even dragons. These battles showcase the conflict between order and chaos, and highlight the role of deities in maintaining balance.
9. The Videvdad contains detailed rituals and rules for dealing with pollution and death. It outlines the process of cleansing, and discusses the ways that death can defile the living world through the spread of lies and impurity.
10. Darius presented himself as a righteous king chosen by Ahuramazdâ, highlighting his commitment to justice, order, and the support of the divine. His inscriptions promote the idea that he rules with divine sanction and aims for the prosperity of his kingdom.

Essay Questions

1. Analyze the concept of dualism in Zoroastrianism. How is it manifested in the cosmology, deities, and moral teachings of the texts?
2. Discuss the significance of ritual in Zoroastrianism. How do the Yasna, Yashts, and Videvdad prescribe specific ritual practices, and what are the intended effects of these rituals?
3. Compare and contrast the roles of key deities such as Ahura Mazdâ, Mithra, and Anâhitâ in the Zoroastrian texts. How do these figures interact with each other and with the human world?
4. Explore the role of Zarathustra as presented in the texts. How is he depicted as a prophet, a reformer, and a spiritual leader, and what is his relationship to Ahura Mazdâ?
5. Discuss the Zoroastrian perspective on the afterlife. How is the soul judged, and what are the different fates awaiting those who have lived good versus bad lives?

Glossary of Key Terms

• Ahura Mazdâ: The supreme god in Zoroastrianism, the creator and sustainer of the universe, embodying wisdom, order, and goodness.
• Amesha Spentas: The six “holy immortals” that are emanations or aspects of Ahura Mazdâ, often representing abstract qualities such as Good Thought, Best Order, and Life-Giving Humility.
• Angra Mainyu (Ahriman): The evil spirit, the embodiment of chaos, destruction, and the Lie (Druj), who opposes Ahura Mazdâ.
• Ashi: A goddess associated with good fortune, reward, and prosperity, often appearing with the deity Sraosha.
• Barsom: A bundle of twigs used in Zoroastrian rituals, representing plant life and growth.
• Daênâ: A person’s inner guide, representing their totality of thoughts, words, and actions, and their ultimate fate in the afterlife.
• Druj (The Lie): The principle of falsehood, chaos, and disorder, which opposes the truth and order of Ahura Mazdâ.
• Fravashis: The pre-souls of the righteous, powerful spirits who assist in creation and protect the living.
• Gâthâs: The most ancient and sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, believed to contain the teachings of Zarathustra in the form of hymns and prayers.
• Haoma: A sacred plant from which a ritual juice is pressed, used in Zoroastrian ceremonies to grant wisdom, strength, and insight.
• Karshwar: The seven climes or divisions of the earth in Zoroastrian cosmology.
• Khwaniratha: The central, most important of the seven climes, where the righteous dwell.
• Mithra: A deity associated with contracts, truth, and the sun, often depicted as a warrior and overseer who protects social and political order.
• Rashnu: A deity associated with justice, who judges souls after death and weighs their deeds.
• Sraosha: A deity associated with obedience, discipline, and the judge of the soul.
• Spenta: An epithet meaning life-giving, fertile, and associated with growth and prosperity.
• Videvdad: A Zoroastrian text primarily concerned with rituals, laws, and purifications to combat the Lie and maintain cosmic order.
• Yashts: A collection of hymns dedicated to individual Zoroastrian deities.
• Yasna: The primary Zoroastrian liturgical text, consisting of prayers, hymns, and rituals, including the Gâthâs.
• Zand: In Zoroastrian texts refers to those possessed by sorcerers, associated with evil and disorder.
• Zoroaster (Zarathustra): The prophet and founder of Zoroastrianism, who received revelations from Ahura Mazdâ.
• Xwêdôdah: The Zoroastrian practice of incestuous marriage, particularly between close family members, that is considered meritorious for reasons of kinship and spiritual purity.